The stance of the Roman Catholic Church regarding the dissolution of marriage is rooted in the belief that marriage is a sacred covenant established by God, intended to be a permanent and indissoluble union. This perspective maintains that a valid sacramental marriage, ratified and consummated between two baptized individuals, cannot be broken by any human power. Consequently, divorce, understood as the legal termination of a civil marriage contract, is not recognized as ending a valid sacramental marriage in the eyes of the Church. For instance, even if a couple obtains a civil divorce, the Church considers them still married in the eyes of God.
The significance of this doctrine lies in its emphasis on the sanctity and permanence of the marital bond, reflecting the Church’s teachings on commitment, fidelity, and the procreation and education of children within a stable family unit. This position has historical context, dating back to the teachings of Jesus in the Gospels, where divorce is discussed and often presented as a deviation from God’s original plan for marriage. Understanding this principle is crucial for Catholics navigating marital difficulties, as it informs their understanding of the sacraments, their relationship with the Church, and potential avenues for reconciliation or annulment.
Therefore, to provide a comprehensive understanding, it is essential to explore the concepts of annulment, separation, and the Church’s pastoral care for divorced and remarried individuals. These topics shed light on the nuances within the Church’s overall teaching and the support offered to those facing the complexities of broken or strained marital relationships.
1. Indissolubility
Indissolubility forms the cornerstone of the Catholic Church’s stance on marital dissolution. It is the principle that a valid, sacramental marriage, ratified and consummated between two baptized persons, creates a bond that cannot be broken by any human authority. This inherent permanence fundamentally shapes the Church’s view that civil divorce, while potentially a legal reality, does not dissolve the marriage in the eyes of God. Consequently, individuals who obtain a civil divorce but have not received an annulment are considered by the Church to still be married and are not free to enter into another marriage recognized by the Church. This tenet directly influences the pastoral care and sacramental eligibility of divorced Catholics.
The emphasis on indissolubility stems from scriptural interpretations and the understanding of marriage as a reflection of Christ’s unwavering love for the Church. For instance, consider a couple who marries in the Catholic Church, believing in the permanence of their commitment. Years later, they experience irreconcilable differences and pursue a civil divorce. Despite the legal separation, the Church maintains that their sacramental marriage endures. This perspective has practical implications, affecting their ability to receive Communion or participate fully in certain aspects of Church life unless an annulment is granted or they refrain from entering into another union. Understanding indissolubility is therefore essential for Catholics navigating marital difficulties and seeking guidance from the Church.
In summary, the concept of indissolubility is inextricably linked to the Catholic Church’s view on marital dissolution. It establishes the foundational belief that marriage is a permanent bond, influencing the Church’s teachings on divorce, annulment, and the pastoral care of divorced individuals. This unwavering commitment to the permanence of marriage presents challenges for some, requiring careful discernment, support, and adherence to Church teachings. Ultimately, the principle of indissolubility underscores the Church’s belief in the sacred nature of marriage and its enduring commitment to the marital covenant.
2. Sacramental Bond
The sacramental bond is central to understanding the Catholic Church’s perspective on marital dissolution. The Church views marriage between two baptized individuals as a sacrament, a visible sign of God’s grace. This sacramental character imparts a unique and indissoluble quality to the marital union. Specifically, the Church teaches that when two baptized persons validly enter marriage, they are united by God himself in a bond that cannot be broken by any human authority. Thus, the sacramental bond acts as a primary reason why the Church does not recognize divorce as terminating a valid marriage. The existence of the sacramental bond means that even if a couple obtains a civil divorce, the Church considers them still bound to one another.
The importance of the sacramental bond is evident in the Church’s distinction between civil divorce and annulment. Civil divorce is a legal procedure that dissolves a civil contract. However, it has no bearing on the sacramental bond. An annulment, on the other hand, is a declaration by the Church that a valid sacramental marriage never existed from the beginning due to some impediment or defect in consent. For example, if one party lacked the necessary psychological capacity to enter a marital commitment at the time of the wedding, an annulment might be granted. The difference highlights that the Church’s focus is not merely on the legal aspects of marriage, but primarily on the spiritual reality of the union as a sacrament. Consequently, an annulment does not “erase” a marriage but rather acknowledges that it was invalid from its inception.
Therefore, the concept of the sacramental bond directly impacts the lives of divorced Catholics. Unless an annulment is granted, the Church considers them still married and, consequently, they are not free to remarry in the Church. This can lead to complex pastoral situations, as divorced and remarried Catholics may be excluded from receiving Holy Communion. The challenge lies in balancing the Church’s teaching on the indissolubility of marriage with its pastoral responsibility to care for individuals experiencing marital breakdown. Understanding the significance of the sacramental bond is thus crucial for comprehending the Catholic Church’s complex, and often challenging, approach to divorce and remarriage. The emphasis is on the enduring nature of the bond established by God’s grace, a bond that transcends legal or civil changes in marital status.
3. Civil Divorce
Civil divorce, a legal dissolution of marriage recognized by secular authorities, holds a specific and nuanced position within the Catholic Church’s framework regarding marriage and its potential termination. While civil divorce carries significant legal weight in society, its impact on the Church’s understanding of a valid, sacramental marriage is distinctly different. The Church acknowledges the legal reality of civil divorce but does not consider it as ending the sacramental bond established between two baptized individuals in a valid marriage.
-
Legal Recognition vs. Sacramental Validity
Civil divorce is recognized by the state as the legal termination of a marriage, granting individuals the legal right to remarry within the civil jurisdiction. However, the Catholic Church distinguishes between legal recognition and sacramental validity. Even with a civil divorce decree, the Church continues to view the individuals as sacramentally married if the original marriage was valid. This distinction has implications for the individuals’ standing within the Church, particularly regarding remarriage and reception of sacraments.
-
Grounds for Civil Divorce vs. Annulment
The grounds for obtaining a civil divorce typically vary by jurisdiction and may include factors such as irreconcilable differences, adultery, or abandonment. These grounds are often significantly different from the reasons for which the Church might grant an annulment. An annulment, or declaration of nullity, is based on the determination that a valid sacramental marriage never existed from the beginning due to certain impediments or defects in consent. Therefore, the reasons for a civil divorce do not automatically translate into grounds for an annulment.
-
Impact on Remarriage
A central point of divergence lies in the matter of remarriage. While civil divorce allows individuals to legally remarry in the eyes of the state, the Catholic Church does not recognize remarriage without a prior annulment. Individuals who remarry civilly without obtaining an annulment from the Church are considered to be living in a state of adultery and are typically barred from receiving Holy Communion. This teaching underscores the Church’s commitment to the indissolubility of sacramental marriage.
-
Pastoral Considerations
The Catholic Church recognizes the pain and complexity surrounding divorce and offers pastoral care to those affected. This includes providing guidance, support, and opportunities for healing and reconciliation. While the Church upholds its teachings on the indissolubility of marriage, it also emphasizes the importance of compassion and understanding towards individuals who have experienced marital breakdown. This pastoral approach attempts to balance adherence to doctrine with the needs of individuals in difficult circumstances.
In conclusion, civil divorce and the Catholic Church’s view on marriage intersect at a critical juncture where legal realities and sacramental beliefs diverge. The Church acknowledges the legal validity of civil divorce but maintains that it does not dissolve a valid sacramental marriage. This position leads to specific consequences regarding remarriage and sacramental life, while also necessitating a pastoral response to individuals navigating the complexities of divorce. The differing grounds for civil divorce and annulment further emphasize the distinction between the legal and sacramental dimensions of marriage, reflecting the Church’s emphasis on the sacred and enduring nature of the marital bond.
4. Annulment Process
The annulment process is a crucial component of the Catholic Church’s perspective on marital dissolution, providing a pathway for individuals whose marriages have irretrievably broken down, yet without contradicting the Church’s fundamental belief in the indissolubility of marriage. The process does not constitute a “Catholic divorce.” Instead, it is a formal inquiry undertaken by a Church tribunal to determine whether a valid sacramental marriage ever existed from its inception. If the tribunal concludes that essential elements for a valid marriage were lacking at the time the vows were exchanged, a decree of nullity (an annulment) may be granted. This determination then allows individuals to remarry in the Church. The annulment process is thus directly linked to the Catholic Church’s view on divorce, as it provides a mechanism for addressing situations where the marital bond, as understood by the Church, was never truly formed.
The annulment process typically involves several stages, beginning with the submission of a petition by one or both parties to a diocesan tribunal. This petition outlines the grounds upon which the petitioner believes the marriage was invalid. Grounds for annulment might include lack of due discretion (immaturity or psychological incapacity), defective consent (coercion or deception), or impediments (prior existing marriage). The tribunal gathers evidence, including testimony from the parties involved and witnesses, and consults with experts, such as psychologists, if necessary. This evidence is then evaluated to determine whether the claimed defect existed at the time of the marriage vows. A real-life example would be a case where one party knowingly concealed a severe mental health condition from the other party before the marriage; if proven, this could be grounds for annulment due to defective consent. The practical significance of understanding the annulment process lies in its ability to provide clarity and closure for those whose marriages have failed, while simultaneously upholding the Church’s doctrine on the sacredness and permanence of marriage.
In conclusion, the annulment process is not a contradiction of the Catholic Church’s teaching on the indissolubility of marriage. Instead, it is a process of discerning whether a valid sacramental marriage ever existed in the first place. By carefully examining the circumstances surrounding the marriage vows, the Church seeks to offer both justice and pastoral care to individuals struggling with marital breakdown, while remaining true to its foundational beliefs about the nature of marriage. Challenges in the process can arise from the complexity of evidence gathering or the emotional distress experienced by the parties involved. Nevertheless, the annulment process remains an integral part of the Catholic Church’s response to the realities of marital breakdown, offering a path towards healing and a possible future within the Church for those who have experienced the pain of divorce.
5. Separation Allowed
While the Catholic Church steadfastly maintains its teaching on the indissolubility of marriage, it acknowledges that situations may arise where spouses find it practically impossible or even morally hazardous to continue living together. In such circumstances, the Church permits, and sometimes even encourages, separation. This allowance for separation operates within the overarching framework of the Church’s view on divorce, serving as a recognition of the difficult realities of broken marriages without contradicting the doctrinal commitment to the permanence of the marital bond. The cause leading to such a permission is often rooted in grave circumstances endangering the physical or spiritual well-being of a spouse or children. This importance of considering separation as a component of the Church’s overall perspective stems from its commitment to both upholding the sanctity of marriage and providing pastoral care for individuals in distress.
Specifically, the Church distinguishes between separation and divorce. Divorce, as previously stated, is not recognized as dissolving a valid sacramental marriage. Separation, on the other hand, allows spouses to cease cohabitation while remaining married in the eyes of the Church. Canon law addresses this, stating that spouses have a right and duty to maintain conjugal living unless a legitimate cause prevents it. Examples of legitimate causes include situations of abuse, adultery, or severe neglect. A real-life instance might involve a spouse suffering from addiction who refuses treatment and endangers the well-being of their family. In such a case, separation could be seen as a necessary measure to protect the other spouse and any children involved. The practical significance of understanding this allowance is that it provides a morally permissible option for individuals facing intolerable marital situations, offering a means of ensuring safety and well-being without violating Church doctrine on the permanence of marriage.
In summary, the Catholic Church’s allowance for separation represents a compassionate response to the complexities of marital life, acknowledging that while marriage is intended to be indissoluble, circumstances may necessitate spouses living apart. This position is consistent with the broader theme of balancing doctrinal adherence with pastoral care. Challenges can arise in determining when separation is justified, requiring careful discernment and guidance from Church authorities. Ultimately, the allowance for separation reflects the Church’s commitment to protecting individuals from harm while upholding its teaching on the sanctity and permanence of marriage. It is a provision rooted in practicality and concern for the well-being of all involved, serving as a nuanced component of the overall Catholic Church view on divorce.
6. Remarriage Issue
The issue of remarriage presents a significant challenge within the framework of the Catholic Church’s view on marital dissolution. Given the Church’s teaching on the indissolubility of sacramental marriage, remarriage following a civil divorce, without an annulment, raises complex doctrinal and pastoral considerations. The circumstances surrounding remarriage often place individuals in a precarious position with respect to Church teaching and participation in sacramental life. This aspect necessitates careful examination and understanding.
-
Validity of First Marriage
The Church’s stance on remarriage hinges entirely on the validity of the first marriage. If a marriage is deemed valid and sacramental, the Church considers the bond permanent. Consequently, any subsequent civil marriage is not recognized as valid in the eyes of the Church. For instance, if two baptized Catholics exchange vows in the Church, a sacramental bond is formed. A civil divorce does not dissolve this bond, and therefore, remarriage without an annulment is considered adultery.
-
The Annulment Process and Remarriage
The annulment process offers a potential path for individuals seeking to remarry within the Church. If an annulment is granted, the Church declares that the first marriage was never valid due to some impediment at the time the vows were exchanged. With a declaration of nullity, an individual is considered free to marry in the Church. However, it’s crucial to understand that an annulment is not a “Catholic divorce,” but a recognition that a valid sacramental marriage never existed. A common example is a marriage where one party concealed a prior existing marriage; such deception could be grounds for an annulment, thus opening the possibility of remarriage in the Church.
-
Sacramental Implications of Remarriage without Annulment
Individuals who remarry civilly without obtaining an annulment are generally considered to be in a state of objective adultery, according to Church teaching. As a result, they are typically barred from receiving Holy Communion and participating fully in certain aspects of Church life. This situation can create significant pastoral challenges, as these individuals may feel excluded from the Church community. However, the Church encourages them to remain connected, attend Mass, and seek guidance from a priest to explore their options.
-
Pastoral Accompaniment and Discernment
Despite the doctrinal challenges, the Church emphasizes the importance of pastoral accompaniment for divorced and remarried individuals. This involves offering support, guidance, and opportunities for discernment. In some cases, depending on the circumstances of the first marriage and the individual’s conscience, there may be ways to regularize the situation within the Church, though these situations are assessed on a case-by-case basis. A priest might, for example, advise a couple in a second marriage to live as brother and sister, thereby allowing them to receive Communion, although this is a demanding and unusual solution.
In conclusion, the issue of remarriage is inextricably linked to the Catholic Church’s view on divorce. The Church’s teaching on the indissolubility of marriage creates significant challenges for those who have divorced and remarried civilly without an annulment. While the Church upholds its doctrine, it also emphasizes the importance of pastoral care and discernment, seeking to accompany individuals in these complex situations and, where possible, find pathways towards reconciliation and participation in the sacramental life of the Church. The nuances of the remarriage issue highlight the tension between upholding traditional teachings and responding to the lived realities of individuals experiencing marital breakdown.
7. Pastoral Care
Pastoral care forms an integral and indispensable component of the Catholic Church’s approach to marital dissolution, providing essential support and guidance to individuals navigating the complexities and emotional distress associated with divorce. Given the Church’s firm stance on the indissolubility of marriage, pastoral care serves as a crucial bridge, connecting canonical teachings with the lived realities of those experiencing marital breakdown. The nature of pastoral care is such that it seeks to address both the spiritual and emotional needs of individuals, emphasizing compassion and understanding within the bounds of Church doctrine. This commitment is vital, as it aims to prevent isolation and despair, fostering a sense of belonging and hope even amidst challenging circumstances. For example, a priest might offer counseling, spiritual direction, or simply a listening ear to a divorced parishioner struggling with feelings of guilt, loneliness, or alienation from the Church. Such intervention is intended to alleviate suffering and provide pathways toward healing and reconciliation, where possible.
Furthermore, the practical application of pastoral care extends beyond individual counseling. It often involves support groups, educational programs, and opportunities for spiritual growth tailored to the needs of divorced and separated individuals. The aim is to create a supportive community where individuals can share their experiences, receive encouragement, and learn coping strategies. Consider a parish that establishes a ministry specifically dedicated to serving divorced Catholics. This ministry might organize regular meetings for prayer, discussion, and social interaction, offering a safe and non-judgmental space for individuals to process their emotions and rebuild their lives. Additionally, pastoral care includes guidance on the annulment process, providing clear and accessible information to those considering this option, and assisting them through what can be a complicated and emotionally taxing procedure. The effectiveness of pastoral care is judged by its capacity to offer comfort, hope, and practical assistance while upholding the Church’s teachings on marriage.
In conclusion, pastoral care is not merely an ancillary aspect of the Catholic Church’s view on divorce; it is a central element, without which the Church’s teachings could be perceived as rigid and uncaring. Challenges undoubtedly exist in balancing doctrinal adherence with the diverse and often painful experiences of divorced individuals. However, the Church’s commitment to providing comprehensive pastoral care demonstrates its recognition of the human cost of marital breakdown and its dedication to offering support, guidance, and a sense of belonging to all its members, regardless of their marital status. It ultimately signifies the Churchs efforts to embody the compassion and mercy of Christ in the face of human suffering.
8. Children’s Welfare
The welfare of children is a paramount concern within the Catholic Church’s perspective on marital dissolution. This concern significantly influences the Church’s teachings and pastoral practices related to divorce, annulment, and the overall approach to families experiencing breakdown. The well-being of children is not merely a secondary consideration but a central factor guiding the Church’s response to the complex realities of fractured marital relationships.
-
Stability and Nurturing Environment
The Church emphasizes the importance of providing children with a stable and nurturing environment, ideally within a marriage that reflects the love and commitment of Christ. A home rooted in faith and mutual respect between parents is considered the optimal setting for a child’s development. The dissolution of marriage disrupts this ideal and can create emotional, psychological, and even financial instability for children. For example, children of divorced parents may experience increased stress, anxiety, and difficulty in school. The Church strives to mitigate these negative impacts through pastoral support and guidance, encouraging parents to prioritize their children’s needs even amidst their own difficulties.
-
Parental Responsibilities and Co-Parenting
Even when a marriage ends, the Church stresses the ongoing responsibilities of both parents toward their children. This includes providing for their material needs, offering emotional support, and ensuring their religious upbringing. The Church encourages divorced or separated parents to cooperate in co-parenting, minimizing conflict and maintaining a consistent presence in their children’s lives. For instance, parents might agree to attend religious services together or participate in school activities, demonstrating a unified commitment to their children’s well-being despite their own separation. The focus is on minimizing the disruption to the children’s lives and fostering a sense of security and love.
-
Sacramental Life and Religious Formation
The Church aims to ensure that children from divorced families continue to have access to the sacraments and religious education. Regardless of their parents’ marital status, children are encouraged to participate fully in the life of the Church. This may involve providing religious instruction, preparing them for sacraments such as First Communion and Confirmation, and offering opportunities for spiritual growth. For example, a parish might offer special programs for children of divorced parents, helping them to understand their faith and navigate the challenges of their family situation. The goal is to maintain a strong connection to the Church and provide a supportive environment for their religious development.
-
Impact of Parental Remarriage
The Church recognizes that divorced individuals may remarry, and this can significantly impact the lives of their children. If a divorced parent remarries without an annulment, the Church’s teachings on the validity of marriage come into play, potentially creating challenges for the children. The Church encourages the divorced and remarried parent to actively involve the children in their new family life in a healthy and supportive way. As an illustration, if the subsequent family does not share the same catholic beliefs, the church is obliged to teach and guide this remarried parents about religious formation of a children so that there is an continuity of faith in children.
These considerations underscore the Church’s commitment to safeguarding the well-being of children in families experiencing marital breakdown. By emphasizing stability, parental responsibilities, sacramental life, and pastoral support, the Church seeks to mitigate the negative impacts of divorce on children and promote their healthy development. The welfare of children is not merely an addendum to the Church’s view on divorce but a central and guiding principle that informs its teachings and practices.
Frequently Asked Questions
This section addresses common inquiries regarding the Catholic Church’s perspective on marital dissolution, offering clarification on key doctrines and practices.
Question 1: Does the Catholic Church permit divorce?
The Catholic Church does not recognize divorce, understood as the dissolution of a valid sacramental marriage. The Church teaches that a sacramental marriage, ratified and consummated between two baptized persons, creates a permanent bond that cannot be broken by any human power. Civil divorce, while recognized by secular authorities, does not dissolve this bond in the eyes of the Church.
Question 2: What is an annulment, and how does it differ from divorce?
An annulment, properly termed a “declaration of nullity,” is a judgment by the Church that a valid sacramental marriage never existed from the beginning. This is distinct from divorce, which presumes a valid marriage existed but is now terminated. An annulment is granted if essential elements for a valid marriage, such as free consent or the capacity to commit, were lacking at the time the vows were exchanged.
Question 3: Can a Catholic who has obtained a civil divorce receive Holy Communion?
A Catholic who has obtained a civil divorce and remarried without an annulment is generally considered to be in a state of objective adultery, according to Church teaching. As a result, such individuals are typically not permitted to receive Holy Communion unless they live as “brother and sister” (abstain from sexual relations) or the first marriage is declared null. However, it is recommended to seek guidance from a priest to fully understand the situation.
Question 4: Is separation permissible in the Catholic Church?
Yes, separation is permissible under certain circumstances. The Church recognizes that situations may arise where continuing conjugal life becomes practically impossible or morally dangerous for one or both spouses, or for the children. Grounds for separation may include abuse, adultery, or abandonment. Separation does not dissolve the marriage bond.
Question 5: What is the Church’s stance on children’s welfare in cases of marital breakdown?
The Church prioritizes the welfare of children in cases of marital breakdown. Parents are encouraged to minimize conflict and cooperate in raising their children, ensuring their emotional, psychological, and spiritual needs are met. The Church also emphasizes the importance of children maintaining a relationship with both parents, where possible, and continuing to participate in the sacramental life of the Church.
Question 6: What kind of pastoral support does the Church offer to divorced Catholics?
The Church offers a range of pastoral support services to divorced Catholics, including counseling, spiritual direction, and support groups. These services aim to provide guidance, comfort, and a sense of community to those navigating the challenges of marital breakdown. The Church also provides information and assistance regarding the annulment process, helping individuals understand their options and navigate the complexities of the situation.
The Catholic Church’s perspective on marital dissolution is rooted in its belief in the sacredness and permanence of marriage. While upholding its doctrinal teachings, the Church also seeks to provide pastoral care and support to individuals facing the challenges of divorce.
The next section explores further resources and avenues for seeking assistance within the Catholic Church.
Navigating the Catholic Church’s Stance on Marital Dissolution
The Catholic Church’s teachings on the permanence of marriage present distinct challenges for individuals facing marital breakdown. This section provides practical advice for navigating these challenges with understanding and adherence to Church principles.
Tip 1: Seek Clarity on Church Doctrine. A comprehensive understanding of the Church’s teachings on marriage, divorce, and annulment is fundamental. Consultation with a knowledgeable priest or canon lawyer provides essential clarity on these complex issues.
Tip 2: Explore the Annulment Process Thoroughly. The annulment process is often misunderstood. Investigating whether grounds for annulment exist in a particular case requires careful consideration and consultation with a diocesan tribunal.
Tip 3: Prioritize Children’s Well-being. Regardless of marital status, both parents bear a continued responsibility for the emotional, spiritual, and material welfare of their children. Minimizing conflict and fostering a stable environment are paramount.
Tip 4: Engage with Pastoral Care Resources. The Church offers a range of pastoral support services for individuals experiencing marital difficulties. Engaging with these resources, such as counseling or support groups, provides invaluable guidance and community.
Tip 5: Recognize the Importance of Sacramental Life. Even in challenging circumstances, maintaining participation in the sacramental life of the Church is crucial. Attending Mass and seeking spiritual direction can provide strength and guidance.
Tip 6: Understand the Implications of Remarriage. Remarriage without an annulment presents significant challenges within the Church. Fully understanding the implications of such a decision is essential, including the potential restrictions on receiving Holy Communion.
Tip 7: Maintain Open Communication with the Church. Transparency and honesty with Church authorities regarding marital circumstances are vital. Open communication fosters trust and allows for appropriate guidance and support.
Adhering to these guidelines facilitates a thoughtful and informed approach to navigating marital dissolution within the Catholic Church, ensuring that decisions are made with both doctrinal understanding and personal well-being in mind.
The subsequent section provides concluding remarks on the Catholic Church’s view on marital dissolution, summarizing key themes and emphasizing the importance of seeking guidance and support from the Church.
Conclusion
The preceding exploration has elucidated key facets of the Catholic Church’s view on divorce. The doctrine of indissolubility, the sacramental bond of marriage, the distinction between civil divorce and annulment, the allowance for separation under specific circumstances, and the complex issue of remarriage have been thoroughly examined. Emphasis has been placed on the Church’s pastoral care for those experiencing marital breakdown and the overriding concern for the welfare of children within affected families.
The Catholic Church’s unwavering commitment to the sanctity of marriage presents both challenges and opportunities for individuals navigating the complexities of marital discord. Seeking guidance from Church authorities, engaging with available pastoral resources, and prioritizing the well-being of children are essential steps in ensuring that decisions align with both Church teachings and individual circumstances. Continued engagement with these principles remains vital for a comprehensive understanding and navigation of the Churchs perspective on marital dissolution.
